Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences

643 Pages·2011·11.14 MB·English

by  Frederick J Gravetter

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4e
Research Methods

FOR THE
Behavioral Sciences
FREDERICK J GRAVETTER
State University of New York College at Brockport
LORI-ANN B. FORZANO
State University of New York College at Brockport
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
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BRIEF CONTENTS
PREFACE xv
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xii
1 Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method 1
2 Research Ideas 39
3 Defining and Measuring Variables 71
4 Ethics in Research 107
5 Selecting Research Participants 137
6 Research Strategies and Validity 157
7 The Experimental Research Strategy 195
8 Experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design 227
9 Experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design 253
10 The Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Strategies:
Nonequivalent Group, Pre–Post, and Developmental Designs 281
11 Factorial Designs 309
12 The Correlational Research Strategy 343
13 The Descriptive Research Strategy 363
14 Single-Subject Research Designs 395
15 Statistical Evaluation of Data 431
16 Writing an APA-Style Research Report 487
APPENDICES A Random Number Table and Instruction 519
B Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables 523
C Instructions for Using SPSS 553
D Sample APA-Style Research Report Manuscript for Publication 577
GLOSSARY 589
REFERENCES 601
NAME INDEX 607
SUBJECT INDEX 611
iii
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CONTENTS
PREFACE xvii
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xxv
1
Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge,

and the Scientific Method 1
Chapter Overview 1
1.1 Introduction to Research Methodology 2
Why Take A Research Methods Course? 2
Other Reasons for Taking a Research Methods Course 3
1.2 Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge 5
The Method of Tenacity 6
The Method of Intuition 7
The Method of Authority 7
The Rational Method 10
The Empirical Method 13
Summary 15
1.3 The Scientifi c Method 16
The Steps of the Scientifi c Method 16
Other Elements of the Scientifi c Method 21
Science versus Pseudoscience 24
1.4 The Research Process 25
Step 1: Find a Research Idea: Select a Topic and Search the Literature to
Find an Unanswered Question 27
Step 2: Form a Hypothesis and a Prediction 28
Step 3: Determine How You Will Defi ne and Measure Your Variables 32
Step 4: Identify and Select the Participants or Subjects for the Study 32
Step 5: Select a Research Strategy 33
Step 6: Select a Research Design 34
Step 7: Conduct the Study 34
Step 8: Evaluate the Data 34
Step 9: Report the Results 34
Step 10: Refi ne or Reformulate Your Research Idea 35
v
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vi Contents
Chapter Summary 36 Combine or Contrast Existing
Key Words 36 Results 65
Converting a Research Idea into a
Exercises 36
Hypothesis and Prediction 65
Learning Activities 37
2.6 Reading and Understanding a
Web Resources 38 Research Article 66
Chapter Summary 68
2
Research Ideas 39 Key Words 68
Chapter Overview 39 Exercises 68
2.1 Getting Started 40 Learning Activities 69
Pick a Topic in Which You Are
Web Resources 70
Interested 40
Do Your Homework 40
3
Defining and Measuring
Keep an Open Mind 41
Focus, Focus, Focus 41 Variables 71
Take One Step at a Time 41
Chapter Overview 71
2.2 Finding a General Topic Area 42
3.1 An Overview of Measurement 72
Common Sources of Research
Topics 42 3.2 Constructs and Operational
Defi nitions 74
Common Mistakes in Choosing a
Research Topic 44 Theories and Constructs 74
Operational Defi nitions 75
2.3 Finding and Using Background
Limitations of Operational
Literature 46
Defi nitions 76
Primary and Secondary Sources 48
Using Operational Defi nitions 76
The Purpose of a Literature
Search 49 3.3 Validity and Reliability of
Measurement 77
2.4 Conducting a Literature Search 52
Validity of Measurement 77
Starting Points 52
Reliability of Measurement 84
Using Online Databases 52
The Relationship Between Reliability
Using PsycINFO 54
and Validity 88
Beginning a Literature Search 57
3.4 Scales of Measurement 89
The Process of Conducting a Literature
Search 58 The Nominal Scale 89
Searching Forward 63 The Ordinal Scale 89
Taking Notes 63 Interval and Ratio Scales 90
Selecting a Scale of Measurement 92
2.5 Finding an Idea for a Research Study
and Converting the Idea 3.5 Modalities of Measurement 93
into a Hypothesis and a Self-Report Measures 93
Prediction 64 Physiological Measures 94
Find Suggestions for Future Behavioral Measures 95
Research 64 3.6 Other Aspects of Measurement 96
Modify or Extend an Existing Multiple Measures 96
Study—Critical Reading 64 Sensitivity and Range Effects 96
Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Contents vii
Artifacts: Experimental Bias and 5 Selecting Research
Participant Reactivity 97
Participants 137
Selecting a Measurement
Procedure 101 Chapter Overview 137
Chapter Summary 102 5.1 Introduction 138
Key Words 103 Populations and Samples 138
Representative Samples 140
Exercises 103
Sample Size 141
Learning Activities 104
Sampling Basics 143
Web Resources 105
5.2 Probability Sampling Methods 144
Simple Random Sampling 144
4 Ethics in Research 107 Systematic Sampling 146
Stratifi ed Random Sampling 147
Chapter Overview 107
Proportionate Stratifi ed Random
4.1 Introduction 108 Sampling 148
Ethical Concerns Throughout the Cluster Sampling 149
Research Process 108 Combined-Strategy Sampling 150
The Basic Categories of Ethical A Summary of Probability Sampling
Responsibility 109 Methods 150
4.2 Ethical Issues and Human 5.3 Nonprobability Sampling
Participants in Research 109 Methods 151
Historical Highlights of Treatment of Convenience Sampling 151
Human Participants 109 Quota Sampling 152
American Psychological Association
Chapter Summary 154
Guidelines 112
Key Words 154
The Institutional Review Board 125
Exercises 155
4.3 Ethical Issues and Nonhuman
Subjects in Research 127 Learning Activities 155
Historical Highlights of Treatment of Web Resources 156
Nonhuman Subjects 128
American Psychological Association 6
Research Strategies and
Guidelines 128
The Institutional Animal Care and Use Validity 157
Committee 129
Chapter Overview 157
4.4 Ethical Issues and Scientifi c
6.1 Quantitative and Qualitative
Integrity 130
Research 158
Fraud in Science 130
6.2 Strategies for Quantitative
Plagiarism 132
Research 159
Chapter Summary 133
The Descriptive Research
Key Words 135 Strategy 160
Exercises 135 Relationships Between Variables 160
Learning Activities 136
Web Resources 136
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viii Contents
The Correlational Research Strategy: 6.6 More About Internal and External
Measuring Two Variables for Each Validity 185
Individual 161 Balancing Internal and External
Comparing Two or More Sets of Validity 187
Scores: The Experimental, Artifacts: Threats to Both Internal and
Quasi-Experimental, and External Validity 187
Nonexperimental Research Exaggerated Variables 188
Strategies 162 Validity and Individual Research
The Experimental Research Strategies 189
Strategy 163
6.7 Research Strategies, Research Designs,
The Quasi-Experimental Research
and Research Procedures 189
Strategy 163
Research Strategies 189
The Nonexperimental Research
Research Designs 189
Strategy 164
Research Procedures 190
Research Strategy Summary 165
Chapter Summary 191
Data Structures and Statistical
Analysis 165 Key Words 192
Summary 167 Exercises 192
6.3 Internal and External Validity 167 Learning Activities 193
External Validity 168
Web Resources 194
Internal Validity 169
Validity and the Quality of a Research 7
The Experimental Research
Strategy 170
6.4 Threats to External Validity 171 Strategy 195
Category 1: Generalizing Across
Chapter Overview 195
Participants or Subjects 171
7.1 Cause-and-Effect Relationships 196
Category 2: Generalizing Across
Terminology for the Experimental
Features of a Study 174
Research Strategy 198
Category 3: Generalizing Across
Features of the Measures 175 Causation and the Third-Variable
Problem 199
6.5 Threats to Internal Validity 176
Causation and the Directionality
Extraneous Variables 176
Problem 200
Confounding Variables 177
Controlling Nature 201
Extraneous Variables, Confounding
7.2 Distinguishing Elements of an
Variables, and Internal
Experiment 202
Validity 179
Manipulation 202
Environmental Variables: General
Control 205
Threats to Internal Validity for All
Studies 180 7.3 Dealing with Extraneous
Individual Differences: Threats Variables 207
to Internal Validity for Studies Control by Holding Constant or
Comparing Different Groups 181 Matching 209
Time-Related Variables: Threats Control by Randomization 211
to Internal Validity for Studies Comparing Methods of Control 212
Comparing One Group over Advantages and Disadvantages of
Time 181 Control Methods 213
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