Table Of ContentFeminists Theorize the State
Feminists Theorize
the State
Johanna Kantola
Research fellow, Department of Political Science
University of Helsinki, Finland
© Johanna Kantola 2006
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06
To my grandma, mummo, Toini Haapakoski
Contents
Acknowledgements ix
List of Abbreviations xi
1. Gender and the State: Theories and Debates 1
Feminist theories of the state 3
Current debates about gender and the state 15
The arguments and structure of the book 18
2. Feminist Comparative Discourse Analysis 22
Discourse analysis 23
Feminist discourse analysis 27
Political discourse analysis 33
Feminist comparative discourse analysis 41
Conclusion 45
3. Feminists ‘in’ the State? Childcare Debates in Finland 47
Introduction 47
Agenda-setting and adoption: early feminist discourses 48
Implementation and evaluation: consolidation of
childcare discourses 57
Feminist discourses in the 1994 parliamentary debate 64
Conclusion 71
4. Feminists ‘out’ of the State? Domestic Violence Debates
in Britain 73
Introduction 73
Agenda-setting and adoption: early feminist discourses 74
Implementation and evaluation: consolidation of the
discourses 82
Feminist discourses in the 1993 parliamentary debate 87
Conclusion 97
5. Comparisons of Feminist Discourses about the State 100
Introduction 100
Domestic violence debates in Finland 100
Childcare debates in Britain 111
Comparative conclusions for feminist perspectives on
the state 123
Conclusion 128
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viii Contents
6. Gender, State and New Institutions 129
Introduction 129
The Scottish Parliament 130
The European Union 143
Conclusion 154
7. New Directions for Feminist State Theory 156
Notes 166
Bibliography 171
Index 193
Acknowledgements
This project was carried out in different places and universities. It started
in Birmingham and continued in Bristol and Helsinki. In Birmingham,
I learnt that I wanted to study feminism and the state. The way that
I was doing it developed and changed thanks to the influence and
inspiration of the people in these different contexts.
The teaching and research conducted in the Department of Political
Science and International Studies in the University of Birmingham were
pivotal in making me interested in the topic. Colin Hay and David
Marsh made me feel that my work was important; later, I came to see
that this was not self-evident in a male-dominated Politics Department.
At the University of Bristol, my PhD adviser, Judith Squires, was critical,
demanding and encouraging, and constantly pushed me forward. Judith’s
way of thinking, analysis and of discussing politics continues to inspire me.
Our discussions about novels, walks in a snowstorm in Stockholm, confer-
ence dinners in different parts of Europe and trips around Helsinki were
invaluable.
In Bristol, I had the privilege to be surrounded by bright women. The
Politics Department was a vibrant centre for gender and politics research,
evidenced in reading groups, seminars and conferences from which my
work benefited. In particular, I would like to thank Jutta Weldes for her
critical comments and helpful suggestions. While in Bristol, I got to
know many people who were important to this work. I would like to
thank Vicky Randall for her enthusiasm for my work and encouragement
to get it published. Birte Siim was a visiting professor at Bristol and gave
important feedback on my work and became an inspiring example.
While doing my postdoctoral research, I worked with Mona Lena Krook
and Sarah Childs. I thank both for their friendship and support. For some
months, I shared an office with Mona, which was even better than
spending time together in conferences around the world.
At the University of Helsinki, Anne Maria Holli and Eeva Raevaara
gave me a warm welcome. I thank both for all their support and critical
comments. The way Anne and Eeva took me into various projects, meet-
ings and seminars and shared with me the joys and horrors of Finnish
university life was wonderful and important. I look forward to our femi-
nist revolution. The Christina Institute at the University of Helsinki
offered me a place in their National Graduate School, and I would like to
ix
x Acknowledgements
thank the professors and the postgraduate students there for comments
and feedback on my work. Joint projects in the research network
GENUINE – Gendered Europe – Network in Comparative and EU Studies
further developed my thinking. I thank Kevät Nousiainen, Anu Pylkkänen,
Eeva Luhtakallio, Milja Saari, Outi Alarotu and Satu Sundström.
Numerous friends and colleagues have commented on my work at con-
ferences and seminars which have taken place beyond these three key
contexts. Especially important have been the European Consortium for
Political Research (ECPR) general conferences and joint sessions, which
have had a strong gender section since the first general conference in
Kent at Canterbury in September 2001. In particular, I would like to
thank Karen Beckwith, Christina Bergqvist, Maria Bustelo, Karen Celis,
Hanne Marlene Dahl, Emanuela Lombardo, Fiona Mackay, Amy Mazur,
Dorothy McBride, Petra Meier, Tanya Olsson Blandy, Joyce Outshoorn,
Shirin Rai, Malin Rönnblom, Birgit Sauer, Ann Towns and Mieke Verloo.
Sometimes your influence has taken the form of critical comments and
interest in my work, at other times friendship and inspiration.
Finally, I would like to thank my friends and family in different parts of
the world. Juha Jokela was there throughout and shared with me
Birmingham, Bristol and Helsinki. The distances that we travelled together
cannot be measured in miles or kilometres. Whilst Lili and Leo Chaligha
and their family, Kathy Connelly and Golbarg Wedin-Bashi made Bristol
welcoming for me, Piia Aho and Pilvi Torsti made my return to Helsinki
wonderful and Anders Vacklin makes me want to stay there forever. I
thank my brother Jussi Kantola for coming to Bristol and typing on my
behalf when my hands refused to co-operate any longer. My father Pentti
Kantola and my aunt Päivi Naskali have made me a feminist in their
respective ways, given me my self-confidence and boosted my debating
skills. My mother Anneli Kantola passed away before she could hold this
book in her hands, but the love, support and encouragement that she
gave me throughout my life have made this book possible.
I am grateful for the British Council, the Economic and Social Research
Council, Emil Aaltonen Foundation and Helsingin Sanomain 100-
vuotissäätiö for providing funding for this research.
Part of Chapter 6 was published earlier as ‘Transnational and National
Gender Equality Politics: The European Union’s Impact on Domestic
Violence Discourses in Finland and Britain’, in Sirkku Hellsten, Anne
Maria Holli and Krassimira Daskalova (eds.) Women’s Citizenship and
Political Rights(Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
List of Abbreviations
DHSS Department of Health and Social Security
EOC Equal Opportunities Commission
EU European Union
EWL European Women’s Lobby
HE Hallituksen esitys– government proposal
LEA Local Education Authority
LTOL Lastentarhan opettajien liitto– the Association of Kindergarten
Teachers
MEP Member of the European Parliament
MP Member of Parliament
MSP Member of the Scottish Parliament
NCC National Childcare Campaign
NCCL National Council for Civil Liberties
NGO Non-governmental organisation
NWFA National Women’s Aid Federation
OAJ Opettajien ammattijärjestö– Trade Union of Education
PRCU Policing and Reducing Crime Unit
SDP Suomen sosiaalidemokraattinen puolue– Social Democratic Party
of Finland
SKDL Suomen kansan demokraattinen liitto– Finnish People’s
Democratic League
SMP Suomen maaseudun puolue – Finnish Agrarian Party
SNDL Suomen naisten demokraattinen liitto– Finnish Women’s
Democratic League
SNP Scottish National Party
TANE Tasa-arvoasiain neuvottelukunta– The Council for Equality
between Women and Men
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
WAFE Women’s Aid Federation England
WAS Women’s Aid Federation Scotland
WAVE Women Against Violence Europe
WHO World Health Organization
WNC Women’s National Commission
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